Rabu, 14 Oktober 2009
KU works on korean
https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/handle/1808/276/simple-search?query=korean&sort_by=0&order=DESC&rpp=10&etal=0&start=0
Jumat, 31 Juli 2009
Minggu, 21 Juni 2009
Dating 101: Translating What Men Say Into What Men Mean
Dating 101: Translating What Men Say Into What Men Mean
Sick of overanalyzing every word that guys say? So are we, which is why we went straight to the source to find out what his guy-speak really means.
By dating editor Dustin Goot for Glamour
Photo: iStockphoto.com/© Silvia Jansen
Updated: Jun 16, 2009
RATING THIS ARTICLE
Average (385 votes)
Rate it:
Sign in to rate!
TOOLS
Email Article
Printable View
Add to del.icio.us
Add to Digg
He says: "I'll call you."
He means: "I may call you."
This line isn't the slam dunk most women make it out to be. Besides being genuinely interested, there are a slew of reasons why a guy might ask for a number (he needs an ego boost... he wants a quick way to end the conversation... he bet his buddy he could score more digits, etc). The thing to remember here is that if he's into you, he will find a way to call. And, no, emailing, Facebooking or Twittering at him in the meantime isn't going to help your case. Give the guy a chance to pursue you -- if he doesn't, he's not the one for you anyway.
More Dating Articles from Glamour:
Five Secrets All Guys Keep From You
Seven Things a Guy's Bedroom Says About Him
He says: "I like your shirt/necklace/shoes/hair."
He means: "You look good."
He may have an ulterior motive when he compliments you, but that doesn't make the praise any less sincere. The fact is, men are generally terrible at false flattery. Instead of accusing us of feeding you a line (we know we are!), feel good about the fact that we've noticed something about you that's attractive and memorable. Just don't ask us to remember the brand of those cute shoes.
He says: "I've been busy lately."
He means (if you've dated less than six months): "I've lost interest in you."
He means (if you've dated longer than that): "I like you, but I need to focus on other things."
Usually, this is the classic guy blow-off, but there are exceptions. "Don't forget the big picture," cautions Steve Santagati, who offers dating advice at badboysfinishfirst.com. If you've dated for a few months and your guy is usually there for you, don't hit the panic button over his recent short bouts of inattention. "Just because we get distracted by our jobs doesn't mean we don't care anymore," says Santagati.
He says: "I need some space."
He means: "This relationship is moving too fast."
Nobody's thrilled to hear this one, but "I need space" isn't always the kiss of death. Often men get excited about a new relationship and then struggle to turn down the temperature when they're suddenly seeing you six nights a week. First, confirm that he still wants to date. (Any answer besides yes means you should take your toothbrush and get out of there, stat.) Once that's confirmed, revert to early courtship behavior; make him schedule thoughtful dates in order to see you (no 3 A.M. texts). If the spark returns, still insist on a couple of girls-only nights a week for the next several months -- it'll be good for both of you.
He says: "I love spending time with you."
He means: "I love you... I think."
Guys are notoriously hesitant about dropping the L-bomb outright. When your man starts talking about how he loves specific aspects of the relationship, that's probably his way of dipping his toe in those waters. You should feel good about where things stand, even if the three magic words aren't directly uttered. "Guys aren't gifted at translating their feelings fluently to females," Santagati says. "Give a brother a break."
He says: "I don't believe in marriage."
He means: "I'm not going to marry you."
This is one of those maddening statements you simply can't overanalyze. He may truly oppose the institution. He may be immature. He may not care for you deeply enough. In any case, you have a better chance of making out with Brad Pitt than waiting for him to "come around." Either enjoy his company for what it is or move on.
He says: "I want this to last forever."
He means: "I'm really happy right now."
Most things a guy says about the future should be taken with a grain of salt. "When a guy says he likes you, he means he likes you right then and there," Santagati says. That doesn't mean men are unreliable jerks. But it does mean that when it comes to relationship stability, you should look at what your guy is doing instead of focusing on what he's saying. Santagati advises, "You're better off taking an observational stance." Is he physically affectionate? Does he remember things that are important to you? Does he support you when you need it?
Sick of overanalyzing every word that guys say? So are we, which is why we went straight to the source to find out what his guy-speak really means.
By dating editor Dustin Goot for Glamour
Photo: iStockphoto.com/© Silvia Jansen
Updated: Jun 16, 2009
RATING THIS ARTICLE
Average (385 votes)
Rate it:
Sign in to rate!
TOOLS
Email Article
Printable View
Add to del.icio.us
Add to Digg
He says: "I'll call you."
He means: "I may call you."
This line isn't the slam dunk most women make it out to be. Besides being genuinely interested, there are a slew of reasons why a guy might ask for a number (he needs an ego boost... he wants a quick way to end the conversation... he bet his buddy he could score more digits, etc). The thing to remember here is that if he's into you, he will find a way to call. And, no, emailing, Facebooking or Twittering at him in the meantime isn't going to help your case. Give the guy a chance to pursue you -- if he doesn't, he's not the one for you anyway.
More Dating Articles from Glamour:
Five Secrets All Guys Keep From You
Seven Things a Guy's Bedroom Says About Him
He says: "I like your shirt/necklace/shoes/hair."
He means: "You look good."
He may have an ulterior motive when he compliments you, but that doesn't make the praise any less sincere. The fact is, men are generally terrible at false flattery. Instead of accusing us of feeding you a line (we know we are!), feel good about the fact that we've noticed something about you that's attractive and memorable. Just don't ask us to remember the brand of those cute shoes.
He says: "I've been busy lately."
He means (if you've dated less than six months): "I've lost interest in you."
He means (if you've dated longer than that): "I like you, but I need to focus on other things."
Usually, this is the classic guy blow-off, but there are exceptions. "Don't forget the big picture," cautions Steve Santagati, who offers dating advice at badboysfinishfirst.com. If you've dated for a few months and your guy is usually there for you, don't hit the panic button over his recent short bouts of inattention. "Just because we get distracted by our jobs doesn't mean we don't care anymore," says Santagati.
He says: "I need some space."
He means: "This relationship is moving too fast."
Nobody's thrilled to hear this one, but "I need space" isn't always the kiss of death. Often men get excited about a new relationship and then struggle to turn down the temperature when they're suddenly seeing you six nights a week. First, confirm that he still wants to date. (Any answer besides yes means you should take your toothbrush and get out of there, stat.) Once that's confirmed, revert to early courtship behavior; make him schedule thoughtful dates in order to see you (no 3 A.M. texts). If the spark returns, still insist on a couple of girls-only nights a week for the next several months -- it'll be good for both of you.
He says: "I love spending time with you."
He means: "I love you... I think."
Guys are notoriously hesitant about dropping the L-bomb outright. When your man starts talking about how he loves specific aspects of the relationship, that's probably his way of dipping his toe in those waters. You should feel good about where things stand, even if the three magic words aren't directly uttered. "Guys aren't gifted at translating their feelings fluently to females," Santagati says. "Give a brother a break."
He says: "I don't believe in marriage."
He means: "I'm not going to marry you."
This is one of those maddening statements you simply can't overanalyze. He may truly oppose the institution. He may be immature. He may not care for you deeply enough. In any case, you have a better chance of making out with Brad Pitt than waiting for him to "come around." Either enjoy his company for what it is or move on.
He says: "I want this to last forever."
He means: "I'm really happy right now."
Most things a guy says about the future should be taken with a grain of salt. "When a guy says he likes you, he means he likes you right then and there," Santagati says. That doesn't mean men are unreliable jerks. But it does mean that when it comes to relationship stability, you should look at what your guy is doing instead of focusing on what he's saying. Santagati advises, "You're better off taking an observational stance." Is he physically affectionate? Does he remember things that are important to you? Does he support you when you need it?
Minggu, 07 Juni 2009
Finite Verb
A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand by their own as complete sentences.
The finite forms of a verb are the forms where the verb shows tense, person or singular plural. Non-finite verb forms have no person, tense or number.
I go, she goes, he went - These verb forms are finite.
To go, going, gone - These verb forms are non-finite.
In most Indo-European languages, every grammatically complete sentence or clause must contain a finite verb; sentence fragments not containing finite verbs are described as phrases or minor sentences. In Latin and some Romance languages, however, there are a few words that can be used to form sentences without verbs, such as Latin ecce, Portuguese eis, French voici and voilà, and Italian ecco, all of these translatable as here ... is or here ... are. Some interjections can play the same role. Even in English, a sentence like Thanks for your help! has an interjection where it could have a subject and a finite verb form (compare I appreciate your help!).
In English, as in most related languages, only verbs in certain moods are finite. These include:
the indicative mood (expressing a state of affairs); e.g., "The bulldozer demolished the restaurant," "The leaves were yellow and stiff."
the imperative mood (giving a command).
the subjunctive mood (expressing something that might or might not be the state of affairs, depending on some other part of the sentence).
Verb forms that are not finite include:
the infinitive
participles (e.g., "The broken window...", "The wheezing gentleman...")
gerunds and gerundives
The finite forms of a verb are the forms where the verb shows tense, person or singular plural. Non-finite verb forms have no person, tense or number.
I go, she goes, he went - These verb forms are finite.
To go, going, gone - These verb forms are non-finite.
In most Indo-European languages, every grammatically complete sentence or clause must contain a finite verb; sentence fragments not containing finite verbs are described as phrases or minor sentences. In Latin and some Romance languages, however, there are a few words that can be used to form sentences without verbs, such as Latin ecce, Portuguese eis, French voici and voilà, and Italian ecco, all of these translatable as here ... is or here ... are. Some interjections can play the same role. Even in English, a sentence like Thanks for your help! has an interjection where it could have a subject and a finite verb form (compare I appreciate your help!).
In English, as in most related languages, only verbs in certain moods are finite. These include:
the indicative mood (expressing a state of affairs); e.g., "The bulldozer demolished the restaurant," "The leaves were yellow and stiff."
the imperative mood (giving a command).
the subjunctive mood (expressing something that might or might not be the state of affairs, depending on some other part of the sentence).
Verb forms that are not finite include:
the infinitive
participles (e.g., "The broken window...", "The wheezing gentleman...")
gerunds and gerundives
Case
The accusative case (abbreviated ACC) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) prepositions. It is a noun that is having something done to it, usually joined (such as in Latin) with the nominative case.
In the sentence I see the car, the noun phrase the car is the direct object of the verb "see". In English, which has mostly lost the case system, the definite article and noun – "the car" – remain in the same form regardless of the grammatical role played by the words. One can correctly use "the car" as the subject of a sentence also: "The car is parked here."
In a declined language, the morphology of the article or noun changes in some way according to the grammatical role played by the noun in a given sentence. For example, in German, one possible translation of "the car" is der Wagen. This is the form in nominative case, used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German – Ich sehe den Wagen. In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from der to den in the accusative case.
In grammar, the case of a noun or pronoun indicates its grammatical function in a greater phrase or clause; such as the role of subject, of direct object, or of possessor. While most languages distinguish cases in some fashion, it is only customary to say that a language has cases when these are codified in the morphology of its nouns — that is, when nouns change their form to reflect their case. (Such a change in form is a kind of declension, hence a kind of inflection.) Cases are related to, but distinct from, thematic roles such as agent and patient; while certain cases in each language tend to correspond to certain thematic roles, cases are a syntactic notion whereas thematic roles are a semantic one.
Cases are not very prominent in modern English, except in its personal pronouns (a remnant of the more extensive case system of Old English). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, case is indicated only by word order, by prepositions, and by the clitic -'s.
Taken as a whole, English personal pronouns are typically said to have three morphological cases: the nominative case (such subjective pronouns as I, he, she, we), used for the subject of a finite verb and sometimes for the complement of a copula; the accusative/dative case (such objective pronouns as me, him, her, us), used for the direct or indirect object of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, and sometimes for the complement of a copula; and the genitive case (such possessive pronouns as my/mine, his, her(s), our(s)), used for a grammatical possessor. That said, these pronouns often have more than three forms; the possessive typically has both a determiner form (such as my, our) and a distinct independent form (such as mine, ours). Additionally, except for the interrogative personal pronoun who, they all have a distinct reflexive or intensive form (such as myself, ourselves).
While not very prominent in English, cases feature much more saliently in many other Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Greek, German, Sanskrit, and Russian. Historically, the Indo-European languages had eight morphological cases, though modern languages typically have fewer, using prepositions and word order to convey information that had previously been conveyed using distinct noun forms. The eight historic cases are as follows, with examples:
The nominative case, which corresponds to English's subjective case, indicates the subject of a finite verb:
We went to the store.
The accusative case, which together with the dative and ablative cases (below) corresponds to English's objective case, indicates the direct object of a verb:
The clerk remembered us.
The dative case indicates the indirect object of a verb:
The clerk gave us a discount.
The ablative case indicates movement from something, and/or cause:
The victim went from us to see the doctor.
He was unhappy because of depression.
The genitive case, which corresponds to English's possessive case, indicates the possessor of another noun:
Our citizens are proud of our country.
The vocative case indicates an addressee:
You there, are you O.K.?
The locative case indicates a location:
We live in China.
The instrumental case indicates an object used in performing an action:
We wiped the floor with it.
All of the above are just rough descriptions; the precise distinctions vary from language to language, and are often quite complex. Case is arguably based fundamentally on changes to the noun to indicate the noun's role in the sentence. This is not how English works, where word order and prepositions are used to achieve this; as such it is debatable whether the above examples of English sentences can be said to be examples of 'case' in English
Case and linguistic typology
Main article: Morphosyntactic alignment
Languages are categorized into several case systems, based on their morphosyntactic alignment — how they group verb agents and patients into cases:
Nominative-accusative (or simply accusative): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the nominative case, with the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb being in the accusative case.
Ergative-absolutive (or simply ergative): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the absolutive case, with the agent (subject) of a transitive verb being in the ergative case.
Ergative-accusative (or tripartite): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in its own case (the intransitive case), separate from that of the agent (subject) or patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (which is in the ergative case or accusative case, respectively).
Active-stative (or simply active): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb can be in one of two cases; if the argument is an agent, as in "He ate," then it is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the agentive case), and if it's a patient, as in "He tripped," then it is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the patientive case).
Trigger: One noun in a sentence is the topic or focus. This noun is in the trigger case, and information elsewhere in the sentence (for example a verb affix in Tagalog) specifies the role of the trigger. The trigger may be identified as the agent, patient, etc. Other nouns may be inflected for case, but the inflections are overloaded; for example, in Tagalog, the subject and object of a verb are both expressed in the genitive case when they are not in the trigger case.
The following are systems that some languages use to mark case instead of, or in addition to, declension:
Positional: Nouns are not inflected for case; the position of a noun in the sentence expresses its case.
Adpositional: Nouns are accompanied by words that mark case.
Some languages have very many cases; for example, Finnish has eighteen (see Finnish language noun cases), Hungarian has eighteen and Tsez can even be analyzed as having 126 cases.
John Quijada's constructed language Ithkuil has 81 noun cases, and its descendent Ilaksh has a total of 96 noun cases.[1][2]
In Indo-European languages, each case often contains several different endings, some of which may even be derived from different roots. An ending is chosen depending on gender, number, whether the word is a noun or a modifier, and other factors.
The lemma forms of words, which is the form chosen by convention as the canonical form of a word, is usually the most unmarked or basic case, which is typically the nominative, trigger, or absolutive case, whichever a language may have.
In the sentence I see the car, the noun phrase the car is the direct object of the verb "see". In English, which has mostly lost the case system, the definite article and noun – "the car" – remain in the same form regardless of the grammatical role played by the words. One can correctly use "the car" as the subject of a sentence also: "The car is parked here."
In a declined language, the morphology of the article or noun changes in some way according to the grammatical role played by the noun in a given sentence. For example, in German, one possible translation of "the car" is der Wagen. This is the form in nominative case, used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German – Ich sehe den Wagen. In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from der to den in the accusative case.
In grammar, the case of a noun or pronoun indicates its grammatical function in a greater phrase or clause; such as the role of subject, of direct object, or of possessor. While most languages distinguish cases in some fashion, it is only customary to say that a language has cases when these are codified in the morphology of its nouns — that is, when nouns change their form to reflect their case. (Such a change in form is a kind of declension, hence a kind of inflection.) Cases are related to, but distinct from, thematic roles such as agent and patient; while certain cases in each language tend to correspond to certain thematic roles, cases are a syntactic notion whereas thematic roles are a semantic one.
Cases are not very prominent in modern English, except in its personal pronouns (a remnant of the more extensive case system of Old English). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, case is indicated only by word order, by prepositions, and by the clitic -'s.
Taken as a whole, English personal pronouns are typically said to have three morphological cases: the nominative case (such subjective pronouns as I, he, she, we), used for the subject of a finite verb and sometimes for the complement of a copula; the accusative/dative case (such objective pronouns as me, him, her, us), used for the direct or indirect object of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, and sometimes for the complement of a copula; and the genitive case (such possessive pronouns as my/mine, his, her(s), our(s)), used for a grammatical possessor. That said, these pronouns often have more than three forms; the possessive typically has both a determiner form (such as my, our) and a distinct independent form (such as mine, ours). Additionally, except for the interrogative personal pronoun who, they all have a distinct reflexive or intensive form (such as myself, ourselves).
While not very prominent in English, cases feature much more saliently in many other Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Greek, German, Sanskrit, and Russian. Historically, the Indo-European languages had eight morphological cases, though modern languages typically have fewer, using prepositions and word order to convey information that had previously been conveyed using distinct noun forms. The eight historic cases are as follows, with examples:
The nominative case, which corresponds to English's subjective case, indicates the subject of a finite verb:
We went to the store.
The accusative case, which together with the dative and ablative cases (below) corresponds to English's objective case, indicates the direct object of a verb:
The clerk remembered us.
The dative case indicates the indirect object of a verb:
The clerk gave us a discount.
The ablative case indicates movement from something, and/or cause:
The victim went from us to see the doctor.
He was unhappy because of depression.
The genitive case, which corresponds to English's possessive case, indicates the possessor of another noun:
Our citizens are proud of our country.
The vocative case indicates an addressee:
You there, are you O.K.?
The locative case indicates a location:
We live in China.
The instrumental case indicates an object used in performing an action:
We wiped the floor with it.
All of the above are just rough descriptions; the precise distinctions vary from language to language, and are often quite complex. Case is arguably based fundamentally on changes to the noun to indicate the noun's role in the sentence. This is not how English works, where word order and prepositions are used to achieve this; as such it is debatable whether the above examples of English sentences can be said to be examples of 'case' in English
Case and linguistic typology
Main article: Morphosyntactic alignment
Languages are categorized into several case systems, based on their morphosyntactic alignment — how they group verb agents and patients into cases:
Nominative-accusative (or simply accusative): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the nominative case, with the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb being in the accusative case.
Ergative-absolutive (or simply ergative): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the absolutive case, with the agent (subject) of a transitive verb being in the ergative case.
Ergative-accusative (or tripartite): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in its own case (the intransitive case), separate from that of the agent (subject) or patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (which is in the ergative case or accusative case, respectively).
Active-stative (or simply active): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb can be in one of two cases; if the argument is an agent, as in "He ate," then it is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the agentive case), and if it's a patient, as in "He tripped," then it is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the patientive case).
Trigger: One noun in a sentence is the topic or focus. This noun is in the trigger case, and information elsewhere in the sentence (for example a verb affix in Tagalog) specifies the role of the trigger. The trigger may be identified as the agent, patient, etc. Other nouns may be inflected for case, but the inflections are overloaded; for example, in Tagalog, the subject and object of a verb are both expressed in the genitive case when they are not in the trigger case.
The following are systems that some languages use to mark case instead of, or in addition to, declension:
Positional: Nouns are not inflected for case; the position of a noun in the sentence expresses its case.
Adpositional: Nouns are accompanied by words that mark case.
Some languages have very many cases; for example, Finnish has eighteen (see Finnish language noun cases), Hungarian has eighteen and Tsez can even be analyzed as having 126 cases.
John Quijada's constructed language Ithkuil has 81 noun cases, and its descendent Ilaksh has a total of 96 noun cases.[1][2]
In Indo-European languages, each case often contains several different endings, some of which may even be derived from different roots. An ending is chosen depending on gender, number, whether the word is a noun or a modifier, and other factors.
The lemma forms of words, which is the form chosen by convention as the canonical form of a word, is usually the most unmarked or basic case, which is typically the nominative, trigger, or absolutive case, whichever a language may have.
Jumat, 22 Mei 2009
Transformational Syntax
Yang dinamakan transformasi adalah perubahan bentuk. perhatikan tree berikut
Kamis, 09 April 2009
English Loanwords in Korean
English Loanwords in Korean
By Prihantoro
Abstract
People’s mobility and global information access (internet, telephone, SMS, etc), and the necessity to interact have broken the barrier between one language and the others. It is possible now to find loanwords from other language, including Korean. In Korean, there are great numbers of loanwords borrowed from English. This paper will discuss the English loanwords in Korean, and organize them based on the word formation process and classify them into several categories. Loanwords, everywhere in the world, must be coexisting with the native language. Therefore, shift and violation are most likely to happen in everyday usage, and resulting on various word formation processes.
Keywords: Loanwords, Word Formation, Borrowings
I. Introduction
Before Korean characters (Hangeul) were invented, Korean people wrote by Chinese Characters (hanja). But after King Sejong created Hangeul, it doesn’t mean that the influence of Chinese cannot be found in daily communication. Until now, Chinese characters are still widely used in public place, like direction and many place names are also written in chinese.
From 1910 to the end of World War II in 1945 Japanese officially colonized Korean. This colonialization had great impact on almost all aspects of Korean life, including the language. There are considerable numbers of Korean words borrowed from Japanese. After World War II, Korea started to open up for western economic, technological and cultural influence, including English language. Nowadays, as English is becoming important and widely spread all around the world for communication, the number of English loanwords is also increasing and can almost be found in any language, including Korean. This is why in we can find many words in Korean, which is borrowed from Chinese, English and Japanese.
Loanwords itself means the words that we have borrowed from foreign languages and have widely used in our language lives. (Lyons: 1968). Another linguist, Arlotto (1972) also gives resembling definition that borrowing is a process by which one language or dialect takes and incorporate with others
Although borrowing or loanwords are common terms among linguists, but not every linguists agree with these terms. Haugen (1950) pointed out that more appropriate terms, instead of borrowing or loanwords, ‘stealing’ might be better. However, assuming that lending language doesn’t mean that the source language loses something, the terms borrowing and loanwords will be used in this paper.
II. Word Formation of English Loanwords in Korean
A. Backformation and Derivation
We recognize two types of affix in English, which are inflection and derivation. Inflection is variation in the form of a word, typically by means of an affix, that expresses a grammatical contrast which is obligatory for the stem’s word class in some given grammatical context. It also explains that inflection does not change the stem original word class. While derivation means the formation of a new word or inflectable stem from another word or stem. It typically occurs by the addition of an affix. The derived word is often a different word class from the original. However, what happens in backformation is totally the opposite of both. In Backformation, the words are created by removing the affix (Katamba, 1997)
In English, to indicate pluralities on a noun, one of the ways is by inflecting /-s/ or /-es/. However, when it comes to English loanwords in Korean, the inflection seems to disappear, like in 슬리퍼1 (slippers), 하이힐2 high heels, 블루진3 blue jeans. 프라이팬4 (frying pan), 카레라이스5curried rice, 아이스 티6 iced tea, showed us another process of backformation. They tend to omit derivational suffix /-ing/ and /-ed/ which in English, is used when compounding words and change the word class, in this case from verb and noun into adjective. Another example of omitting derivational suffix can be seen in the ending particle of a sentence in Korean.
On almost every Korean sentence, we will able to notice a suffix. This suffix can be used to identify the speech level. When the sentence is ended by inflectional suffix –아/어/다, the speech level is casual. But when it is ended by 해요 or 합니다, the speech level is formal or very formal. Other inflectional suffixes like했어요 or 했습니다 beside indicating politeness, are also used to indicate action that happened in the past.
We cannot find this phenomenon in English, but they do exist in Korean. So, when English words are borrowed and located by the end of the sentence, they will attach one of these suffixes, like in로맨틱하다 7romantic , 섹시하다8 sexy, 데이트하다9 date, and 쇼핑하다10 shopping. In case of쇼핑하다 shopping and데이트하다 date, compared to other two examples, they are a little bit different. In Korean, 쇼핑 shopping is a noun, and when they want to convert it into verb, instead of changing it into shop, they derive it into쇼핑하다. Same thing happens for데이트하다 date. Instead of maintaining it into ‘shop’ Korean prefers to derive it from N into V by adding derivational affix 하다. Unlike ‘shopping’ and ‘date’, in the cases of로맨틱하다 romantic and 섹시하다 sexy, the affix 하다 doesn’t change the word class. They remain adjective.
Table 1. Backformation and Derivation of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference Types and Process of Word Formation
1 슬리퍼 Slippers Backformation:
delete Inflectional affix /s/
2 하이힐 High heels
3 블루진 Blue jeans
4 프라이팬 Frying Pan Backformation:
Delete Derivational Affix /ing/, /ed/
5 아이스 티 Iced tea
6 카레라이스 Curried rice
7 로맨틱하다 Romantic Inflection:
attach inflectional suffix 하다/했다
8 섹시하다 Sexy
9 데이트하다 Date Derivation:
attach Derivational suffix 하다/했다
10 쇼핑하다 Shopping
B. Coining
Korean also semantically creates, or coins, new English items. These are expressions, which are borrowed from English, but when it comes to Korean, the meaning is different and might be hard to understand for the speaker of English. This phenomenon is called Coining. This kind of word formation totally creates a new word. 모닝서비스11 morning service is an expression borrowed from English. However, when it is used in Korean, it doesn’t mean providing service in the morning. Instead, it is an expression that refers to breakfast menu in fast food restaurant or food stand. Usually the menu consists of a piece of bread, boiled egg, salad on small dish, and a cup of coffee. Other examples are 프레이가이드12 play guide, and 나이터13 nighter. In Korean, play guide refers to a ticket center. When you go to amuse yourself, like going to theatre, music concert, watching baseball game, Korean tend to say 놀다, and they translated it into ‘play’ in English. And they use ‘guide’, because at the ticket box, they can obtain information. That’s why they think ‘play guide’ is a correct expression. The last example can also be categorizing into derivation, for the reason that it attaches suffix /-er/, which changes ‘night’ into a noun. In this Coining case, they assume that ‘nighter’ is someone who does something in the night. And in Korea, it is more often to play baseball at night. So nighter refers to baseball players playing the match in the night.
Table 2. Coining of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Literal Transcription Reference
11 모닝서비스 Morning service Breakfast menu
12 프레이가이드 Play guide Ticket box
13 나이터 nighter Baseball Match
C. Acronym and Abbreviation
An acronym is a word coined by taking the initial letters from each word in a title or phrase, and using them as a new word. This purpose of using acronym is usually to economize space, and make the expression easier to remember. For example, light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (LASER), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In Korean, these acronyms are maintained, but the problem is when it comes to Korean loanword especially the writing system, they must be converted also into Korean character as well. But when it is converted into Korean, Korean seems to try to maintain the pronunciation. 레이저14 (LASER), 유네스코15 (UNESCO), and 나사16 (NASA) are only trying to be as similar as the pronunciation in English, but they don’t represent the initial letters of the acronyms. Same thing goes for abbreviation.
Abbreviation is a short form of a word or phrase, made by leaving out some of the letters. That being an acronym new word must be pronounced as a word and not a series of letters distinguishes acronym from abbreviation. However, the way Korean borrows the words still the same. The loanwords represent the sound only and not reflecting the series of letters, like in 와이엠시에이17 (YMCA: Young Men Christian Association), 브이아이피18 (VIP: Very Important Person), 더블유티오19 (WTO: World Trade Organization).
Table 3. Acronym and Abbreviation of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference Word Formation
14 레이저 LASER Acronym
15 유네스코 UNESCO
16 나사 NASA
17 와이엠시에이 YMCA Abbreviation
18 브이아이피 VIP
19 더블유티오 WTO
D. Clipping
Clipping is one type of word formation where word is formed by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllabic word, such as cell from cellular phone. O Grady (2001) also explained that some of the most common products of clipping are names--Liz, Ron, Rob, Sue, and so on. Clipping is especially popular in the speech of students, where it has yielded forms like prof for professor, phys-ed for physical education, poli-sci for political science, and burger for hamburger. However, many clipped forms have also been accepted in general usage: doc, ad, auto, lab, sub, deli, porn, demo, and condo.
In Korean, some of the expressions in English are clipped when they are borrowed. 콤비20 (combination), (아파트21) apartment , 에로22 (erotic), 수퍼23 (supermarket) are some of the examples of clipping. This happened due to the phonetic convenience.
There are two types of clipping, which are front clipping and back clipping. The word 도저23 bulldozer is the example of front clipping. While 아파트 apartment,에로 (erotic), 수퍼 (supermarket) are the example of back clipping. Front and back clipping can take place not only in single word, but also compound words. The examples for front clipping in compound words are 벤츠24mercedez benz, and 콜라 25 coca cola. While the example of back clipping are 파마26 from permanent wave, and 아지트27 agitation point.
Table 4. Clipping of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference Word Formation
20 아파트 Apartment Back clipping: Simple Word
21 에로 Erotic
22 수퍼 Supermarket
23 도저 Bulldozer Front Clipping: Simple Words
24 벤츠 Mercedez Benz Front Clipping: Compound Words
25 콜라 Coca/ Pepsi Cola
26 파마 Permanent Wave Back Clipping: Compound Words
27 아지트 Agitation Point
E. Compounding
Compounding, Wisniewsky (2007), is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill, waterfall, fingerprint, and scarecrow.
Some of the uninflected words are compounded like 도어폰29 (door phone-doorbell), 가스레인지30 (gas range-gas stove), 아이쇼핑31 (eye shopping). In Korean, not only English and other English words, but compounding English and Korean together is also possible. The following will show you how Korean composed English and Korean words, or Korean and words.
가스통32 is compounded from both English and Korean words. 가스 means gas (from English), and 통 means a container (Korean). Simply say, 가스통 is a gas container, it might be can, tube, or other things. 디지털시계33 is compounded by 디지털which is digital (from English), and 시계 which means watch or clock. Simply say, it is a digital watch. 버스표34 is compounded from bus, 보스 (English), and Korean words 표, which in this case means ticket.
Other example, which shows you the compounding of Korean and English, is 감차집35 or potato chip. 감자 is potato (Korean), and 칩 is chip (English). You can also see the compounding in 신용카드36which means credit card. It is compounded from korean신용, which means credit, and 카드 card from English. 안전벨트37 means safety belt. It is compounded from 안전 (Korean) which means safety, and 벨트 belt (english).
So far, the examples just show noun-noun compounding. However, other types of compounding are also possible in Korean, like베스트셀러38 best seller, 페어플레이39fair play, and 핫라인40 hot line (adjective-noun), while 백댄서41 back dancer-background dancer, 비하인드스토리42 behind story – story behind the scene, 오버센스43over sense-oversensitive are the examples of adverb-noun compounding
Table 5. Compounding of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Literal Translation &Reference
English (N) + (N) Compounding
29 도어폰 Door phone = Door bell
30 가스레인지 Gas Range = Gas Stove
31 아이쇼핑 Earphone
English (N) + Korean (N) Compounding
32 가스통 Gas + 통 (container) = Gas Container
33 디지털시계 Digital + 시계 (Watch) =Digital Watch
34 버스표 Bus + 표 (Ticket) = Bus Ticket
Korean (N) + English (N)
35 감차집 감차 (potato) + Chip = Potato Chip
36 신용카드 신용 (Credit) + Card = Credit Card
37 안전벨트 안전 (Safety) + belt = Safety Belt
English (Adj) + English (N) Compounding
38 베스트셀러 Best seller
39 페어플레이 Fair Play
40 핫라인 Hot Line
English (Adv) + English (N) Compounding
41 백댄서 Back (adj) + Dancer = Background Dancer
42 비하인드스토리 Behind (Adv) + Story (N) = Behind the scene
43 오버센스 Over (Adj) + Sense (N) = Over Sensitive
F. Blending
Blending, from Brown, ed (2005) is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which combines smoke and fog, motel made of motor and hotel, Spanglish which is combination of Spanish and English; and guesstimate, from guess and estimate.
In blending there is no transparent analysis into morphs. As an example, in English we say ‘brunch’ which is the combination of breakfast and lunch. Some of the English words that are blended in Korean are 컴푸터피아44computopia (Computer + Utopia) and 라이거45 liger (Lion + Tiger)
Table 6. Backformation and Derivation of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference
44 컴푸터피아 Computer + Phobia = Computer Phobia
45 라이거 Lion + Tiger = Liger
III. Classification of English Loanwords in Korean
A. Simple and Compound
Simple loanword means that it only contains one single word, like 알리비46 alibi, 챔피언47 champion, or컴퓨터48 computer. While, compound loanwords are made of at least two words, like 샤프펜슬49 sharp pencil,데이터처리50 data processing machine or터치스크린멀티비젼51 touch screen multi vision. The compounding can be just from English, or combination of English and Korean, like 뉴스속보52 which is news flash (속보 means flash in English), 오디오기기53, which is audio machine (기기 is machine), and 샤워실54, which is room for shower (실 means room).
Table 7. Simple and Compound English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Loanwords Classification, Prrocess and Reference
Simple Loanwords
46 알리비 Alibi
47 챔피언 Champion
48 컴퓨터 Computer
Compound Loanwords (English + English)
49 샤프펜슬 Sharp + Pencil = Mechanical Pencil
Compound Loanwords (English + Korean/ Korean + English)
50 데이터처리 Data (Eng) + 처리 (machine)= Data Processing Machine
51 터치스크린멀티비젼 Touch Screen Multi Vision
52 뉴스속보 News (Eng) + 속보 (Flash) = News flash
53 오디오기기 Audio (Eng) + 기기 machine = Audio Machine
54 샤워실 Shower (Eng) + 실 (room) = Bathroom
B. Ambiguous, Unambiguous, and Semantically Deviated Loanwords
Ambiguous means that the loanwords are multi interpretable. For example 코드55 can be interpreted into code, chord, or cord. 펜56 can be equivalent to ‘pan’ or ‘fan’. This is mostly caused by Korean phonotactics or orthology. The opposite is Inambiguous. This means that it has only one reference, either in English, or when it comes to English loanwords in Korean, like스포츠57 sport, 배드민턴58 badminton, 다운로드59 download. Semantically Deviated Loanwords are words that are not used correctly in Korean, or mistranslated. The meaning sometimes can shift from the original words, and difficult to understand for English speaker. As an example, 보이60 in Korean refers to young waiter, servant, or parking valet at the hotel or simply say a man who provides service on entertaining facilities. 콜든타임62 which is golden time, and 샤프펜실61 which is sharp pencil. They have more appropriate translation in English, like prime time, and mechanical pencil.
Table 8. Ambiguous, Unambiguous, and Semantically Deviated English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference
Ambiguous
55 코드 1)Chord, 2) Code
56 펜 1) Fan, 2)Pan
Unambiguous
57 스포츠 sport
58 배드민턴 Badminton
59 다운로드 Download
Semantically Deviated
60 보이 Boy = Young man serving on entertaining facilities
61 콜든타임 Golden Time = Prime TIme
62 샤프펜실 Sharp Pencil = Mechanical Pencil
C. Regular and Technical Terms
Some of the words are regularly used like 바나나63 banana and 코미디64 comedy. However, loanword can also be technical terms such as 갈락토오스65 galactose.
Table 8. Regular and Technical Terms of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference
Regular Term
63 바나나 Banana
64 코미디 Comedy
Technical Terms
65 갈락토오스 Galactose
IV. Summary
There are various types of word formation processes of English Loanwords in Korean. Loanwords must be coexisting with the native language, when an expression from one language is borrowed to another language and used in everyday communication, violation in phonological, morphological rules, syntactic and semantic aspects are most likely to happen.
The writer classified the loanwords by three categories. First category is based on the form of the loanwords. They can be simple and compound loanwords. Compound loanwords, in particular, can be compound of English and Korean words. Second category is based on the perception of English speakers. Some of the loanwords are not ambiguous, some are ambiguous, and some even deviated from the original words so that it is hard to guess the meaning. Third category is regular and technical terms.
By Prihantoro
Abstract
People’s mobility and global information access (internet, telephone, SMS, etc), and the necessity to interact have broken the barrier between one language and the others. It is possible now to find loanwords from other language, including Korean. In Korean, there are great numbers of loanwords borrowed from English. This paper will discuss the English loanwords in Korean, and organize them based on the word formation process and classify them into several categories. Loanwords, everywhere in the world, must be coexisting with the native language. Therefore, shift and violation are most likely to happen in everyday usage, and resulting on various word formation processes.
Keywords: Loanwords, Word Formation, Borrowings
I. Introduction
Before Korean characters (Hangeul) were invented, Korean people wrote by Chinese Characters (hanja). But after King Sejong created Hangeul, it doesn’t mean that the influence of Chinese cannot be found in daily communication. Until now, Chinese characters are still widely used in public place, like direction and many place names are also written in chinese.
From 1910 to the end of World War II in 1945 Japanese officially colonized Korean. This colonialization had great impact on almost all aspects of Korean life, including the language. There are considerable numbers of Korean words borrowed from Japanese. After World War II, Korea started to open up for western economic, technological and cultural influence, including English language. Nowadays, as English is becoming important and widely spread all around the world for communication, the number of English loanwords is also increasing and can almost be found in any language, including Korean. This is why in we can find many words in Korean, which is borrowed from Chinese, English and Japanese.
Loanwords itself means the words that we have borrowed from foreign languages and have widely used in our language lives. (Lyons: 1968). Another linguist, Arlotto (1972) also gives resembling definition that borrowing is a process by which one language or dialect takes and incorporate with others
Although borrowing or loanwords are common terms among linguists, but not every linguists agree with these terms. Haugen (1950) pointed out that more appropriate terms, instead of borrowing or loanwords, ‘stealing’ might be better. However, assuming that lending language doesn’t mean that the source language loses something, the terms borrowing and loanwords will be used in this paper.
II. Word Formation of English Loanwords in Korean
A. Backformation and Derivation
We recognize two types of affix in English, which are inflection and derivation. Inflection is variation in the form of a word, typically by means of an affix, that expresses a grammatical contrast which is obligatory for the stem’s word class in some given grammatical context. It also explains that inflection does not change the stem original word class. While derivation means the formation of a new word or inflectable stem from another word or stem. It typically occurs by the addition of an affix. The derived word is often a different word class from the original. However, what happens in backformation is totally the opposite of both. In Backformation, the words are created by removing the affix (Katamba, 1997)
In English, to indicate pluralities on a noun, one of the ways is by inflecting /-s/ or /-es/. However, when it comes to English loanwords in Korean, the inflection seems to disappear, like in 슬리퍼1 (slippers), 하이힐2 high heels, 블루진3 blue jeans. 프라이팬4 (frying pan), 카레라이스5curried rice, 아이스 티6 iced tea, showed us another process of backformation. They tend to omit derivational suffix /-ing/ and /-ed/ which in English, is used when compounding words and change the word class, in this case from verb and noun into adjective. Another example of omitting derivational suffix can be seen in the ending particle of a sentence in Korean.
On almost every Korean sentence, we will able to notice a suffix. This suffix can be used to identify the speech level. When the sentence is ended by inflectional suffix –아/어/다, the speech level is casual. But when it is ended by 해요 or 합니다, the speech level is formal or very formal. Other inflectional suffixes like했어요 or 했습니다 beside indicating politeness, are also used to indicate action that happened in the past.
We cannot find this phenomenon in English, but they do exist in Korean. So, when English words are borrowed and located by the end of the sentence, they will attach one of these suffixes, like in로맨틱하다 7romantic , 섹시하다8 sexy, 데이트하다9 date, and 쇼핑하다10 shopping. In case of쇼핑하다 shopping and데이트하다 date, compared to other two examples, they are a little bit different. In Korean, 쇼핑 shopping is a noun, and when they want to convert it into verb, instead of changing it into shop, they derive it into쇼핑하다. Same thing happens for데이트하다 date. Instead of maintaining it into ‘shop’ Korean prefers to derive it from N into V by adding derivational affix 하다. Unlike ‘shopping’ and ‘date’, in the cases of로맨틱하다 romantic and 섹시하다 sexy, the affix 하다 doesn’t change the word class. They remain adjective.
Table 1. Backformation and Derivation of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference Types and Process of Word Formation
1 슬리퍼 Slippers Backformation:
delete Inflectional affix /s/
2 하이힐 High heels
3 블루진 Blue jeans
4 프라이팬 Frying Pan Backformation:
Delete Derivational Affix /ing/, /ed/
5 아이스 티 Iced tea
6 카레라이스 Curried rice
7 로맨틱하다 Romantic Inflection:
attach inflectional suffix 하다/했다
8 섹시하다 Sexy
9 데이트하다 Date Derivation:
attach Derivational suffix 하다/했다
10 쇼핑하다 Shopping
B. Coining
Korean also semantically creates, or coins, new English items. These are expressions, which are borrowed from English, but when it comes to Korean, the meaning is different and might be hard to understand for the speaker of English. This phenomenon is called Coining. This kind of word formation totally creates a new word. 모닝서비스11 morning service is an expression borrowed from English. However, when it is used in Korean, it doesn’t mean providing service in the morning. Instead, it is an expression that refers to breakfast menu in fast food restaurant or food stand. Usually the menu consists of a piece of bread, boiled egg, salad on small dish, and a cup of coffee. Other examples are 프레이가이드12 play guide, and 나이터13 nighter. In Korean, play guide refers to a ticket center. When you go to amuse yourself, like going to theatre, music concert, watching baseball game, Korean tend to say 놀다, and they translated it into ‘play’ in English. And they use ‘guide’, because at the ticket box, they can obtain information. That’s why they think ‘play guide’ is a correct expression. The last example can also be categorizing into derivation, for the reason that it attaches suffix /-er/, which changes ‘night’ into a noun. In this Coining case, they assume that ‘nighter’ is someone who does something in the night. And in Korea, it is more often to play baseball at night. So nighter refers to baseball players playing the match in the night.
Table 2. Coining of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Literal Transcription Reference
11 모닝서비스 Morning service Breakfast menu
12 프레이가이드 Play guide Ticket box
13 나이터 nighter Baseball Match
C. Acronym and Abbreviation
An acronym is a word coined by taking the initial letters from each word in a title or phrase, and using them as a new word. This purpose of using acronym is usually to economize space, and make the expression easier to remember. For example, light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (LASER), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In Korean, these acronyms are maintained, but the problem is when it comes to Korean loanword especially the writing system, they must be converted also into Korean character as well. But when it is converted into Korean, Korean seems to try to maintain the pronunciation. 레이저14 (LASER), 유네스코15 (UNESCO), and 나사16 (NASA) are only trying to be as similar as the pronunciation in English, but they don’t represent the initial letters of the acronyms. Same thing goes for abbreviation.
Abbreviation is a short form of a word or phrase, made by leaving out some of the letters. That being an acronym new word must be pronounced as a word and not a series of letters distinguishes acronym from abbreviation. However, the way Korean borrows the words still the same. The loanwords represent the sound only and not reflecting the series of letters, like in 와이엠시에이17 (YMCA: Young Men Christian Association), 브이아이피18 (VIP: Very Important Person), 더블유티오19 (WTO: World Trade Organization).
Table 3. Acronym and Abbreviation of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference Word Formation
14 레이저 LASER Acronym
15 유네스코 UNESCO
16 나사 NASA
17 와이엠시에이 YMCA Abbreviation
18 브이아이피 VIP
19 더블유티오 WTO
D. Clipping
Clipping is one type of word formation where word is formed by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllabic word, such as cell from cellular phone. O Grady (2001) also explained that some of the most common products of clipping are names--Liz, Ron, Rob, Sue, and so on. Clipping is especially popular in the speech of students, where it has yielded forms like prof for professor, phys-ed for physical education, poli-sci for political science, and burger for hamburger. However, many clipped forms have also been accepted in general usage: doc, ad, auto, lab, sub, deli, porn, demo, and condo.
In Korean, some of the expressions in English are clipped when they are borrowed. 콤비20 (combination), (아파트21) apartment , 에로22 (erotic), 수퍼23 (supermarket) are some of the examples of clipping. This happened due to the phonetic convenience.
There are two types of clipping, which are front clipping and back clipping. The word 도저23 bulldozer is the example of front clipping. While 아파트 apartment,에로 (erotic), 수퍼 (supermarket) are the example of back clipping. Front and back clipping can take place not only in single word, but also compound words. The examples for front clipping in compound words are 벤츠24mercedez benz, and 콜라 25 coca cola. While the example of back clipping are 파마26 from permanent wave, and 아지트27 agitation point.
Table 4. Clipping of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference Word Formation
20 아파트 Apartment Back clipping: Simple Word
21 에로 Erotic
22 수퍼 Supermarket
23 도저 Bulldozer Front Clipping: Simple Words
24 벤츠 Mercedez Benz Front Clipping: Compound Words
25 콜라 Coca/ Pepsi Cola
26 파마 Permanent Wave Back Clipping: Compound Words
27 아지트 Agitation Point
E. Compounding
Compounding, Wisniewsky (2007), is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill, waterfall, fingerprint, and scarecrow.
Some of the uninflected words are compounded like 도어폰29 (door phone-doorbell), 가스레인지30 (gas range-gas stove), 아이쇼핑31 (eye shopping). In Korean, not only English and other English words, but compounding English and Korean together is also possible. The following will show you how Korean composed English and Korean words, or Korean and words.
가스통32 is compounded from both English and Korean words. 가스 means gas (from English), and 통 means a container (Korean). Simply say, 가스통 is a gas container, it might be can, tube, or other things. 디지털시계33 is compounded by 디지털which is digital (from English), and 시계 which means watch or clock. Simply say, it is a digital watch. 버스표34 is compounded from bus, 보스 (English), and Korean words 표, which in this case means ticket.
Other example, which shows you the compounding of Korean and English, is 감차집35 or potato chip. 감자 is potato (Korean), and 칩 is chip (English). You can also see the compounding in 신용카드36which means credit card. It is compounded from korean신용, which means credit, and 카드 card from English. 안전벨트37 means safety belt. It is compounded from 안전 (Korean) which means safety, and 벨트 belt (english).
So far, the examples just show noun-noun compounding. However, other types of compounding are also possible in Korean, like베스트셀러38 best seller, 페어플레이39fair play, and 핫라인40 hot line (adjective-noun), while 백댄서41 back dancer-background dancer, 비하인드스토리42 behind story – story behind the scene, 오버센스43over sense-oversensitive are the examples of adverb-noun compounding
Table 5. Compounding of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Literal Translation &Reference
English (N) + (N) Compounding
29 도어폰 Door phone = Door bell
30 가스레인지 Gas Range = Gas Stove
31 아이쇼핑 Earphone
English (N) + Korean (N) Compounding
32 가스통 Gas + 통 (container) = Gas Container
33 디지털시계 Digital + 시계 (Watch) =Digital Watch
34 버스표 Bus + 표 (Ticket) = Bus Ticket
Korean (N) + English (N)
35 감차집 감차 (potato) + Chip = Potato Chip
36 신용카드 신용 (Credit) + Card = Credit Card
37 안전벨트 안전 (Safety) + belt = Safety Belt
English (Adj) + English (N) Compounding
38 베스트셀러 Best seller
39 페어플레이 Fair Play
40 핫라인 Hot Line
English (Adv) + English (N) Compounding
41 백댄서 Back (adj) + Dancer = Background Dancer
42 비하인드스토리 Behind (Adv) + Story (N) = Behind the scene
43 오버센스 Over (Adj) + Sense (N) = Over Sensitive
F. Blending
Blending, from Brown, ed (2005) is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which combines smoke and fog, motel made of motor and hotel, Spanglish which is combination of Spanish and English; and guesstimate, from guess and estimate.
In blending there is no transparent analysis into morphs. As an example, in English we say ‘brunch’ which is the combination of breakfast and lunch. Some of the English words that are blended in Korean are 컴푸터피아44computopia (Computer + Utopia) and 라이거45 liger (Lion + Tiger)
Table 6. Backformation and Derivation of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference
44 컴푸터피아 Computer + Phobia = Computer Phobia
45 라이거 Lion + Tiger = Liger
III. Classification of English Loanwords in Korean
A. Simple and Compound
Simple loanword means that it only contains one single word, like 알리비46 alibi, 챔피언47 champion, or컴퓨터48 computer. While, compound loanwords are made of at least two words, like 샤프펜슬49 sharp pencil,데이터처리50 data processing machine or터치스크린멀티비젼51 touch screen multi vision. The compounding can be just from English, or combination of English and Korean, like 뉴스속보52 which is news flash (속보 means flash in English), 오디오기기53, which is audio machine (기기 is machine), and 샤워실54, which is room for shower (실 means room).
Table 7. Simple and Compound English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Loanwords Classification, Prrocess and Reference
Simple Loanwords
46 알리비 Alibi
47 챔피언 Champion
48 컴퓨터 Computer
Compound Loanwords (English + English)
49 샤프펜슬 Sharp + Pencil = Mechanical Pencil
Compound Loanwords (English + Korean/ Korean + English)
50 데이터처리 Data (Eng) + 처리 (machine)= Data Processing Machine
51 터치스크린멀티비젼 Touch Screen Multi Vision
52 뉴스속보 News (Eng) + 속보 (Flash) = News flash
53 오디오기기 Audio (Eng) + 기기 machine = Audio Machine
54 샤워실 Shower (Eng) + 실 (room) = Bathroom
B. Ambiguous, Unambiguous, and Semantically Deviated Loanwords
Ambiguous means that the loanwords are multi interpretable. For example 코드55 can be interpreted into code, chord, or cord. 펜56 can be equivalent to ‘pan’ or ‘fan’. This is mostly caused by Korean phonotactics or orthology. The opposite is Inambiguous. This means that it has only one reference, either in English, or when it comes to English loanwords in Korean, like스포츠57 sport, 배드민턴58 badminton, 다운로드59 download. Semantically Deviated Loanwords are words that are not used correctly in Korean, or mistranslated. The meaning sometimes can shift from the original words, and difficult to understand for English speaker. As an example, 보이60 in Korean refers to young waiter, servant, or parking valet at the hotel or simply say a man who provides service on entertaining facilities. 콜든타임62 which is golden time, and 샤프펜실61 which is sharp pencil. They have more appropriate translation in English, like prime time, and mechanical pencil.
Table 8. Ambiguous, Unambiguous, and Semantically Deviated English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference
Ambiguous
55 코드 1)Chord, 2) Code
56 펜 1) Fan, 2)Pan
Unambiguous
57 스포츠 sport
58 배드민턴 Badminton
59 다운로드 Download
Semantically Deviated
60 보이 Boy = Young man serving on entertaining facilities
61 콜든타임 Golden Time = Prime TIme
62 샤프펜실 Sharp Pencil = Mechanical Pencil
C. Regular and Technical Terms
Some of the words are regularly used like 바나나63 banana and 코미디64 comedy. However, loanword can also be technical terms such as 갈락토오스65 galactose.
Table 8. Regular and Technical Terms of English Loanwords in Korean
No Korean Alphabet Phonetic Transcription Reference
Regular Term
63 바나나 Banana
64 코미디 Comedy
Technical Terms
65 갈락토오스 Galactose
IV. Summary
There are various types of word formation processes of English Loanwords in Korean. Loanwords must be coexisting with the native language, when an expression from one language is borrowed to another language and used in everyday communication, violation in phonological, morphological rules, syntactic and semantic aspects are most likely to happen.
The writer classified the loanwords by three categories. First category is based on the form of the loanwords. They can be simple and compound loanwords. Compound loanwords, in particular, can be compound of English and Korean words. Second category is based on the perception of English speakers. Some of the loanwords are not ambiguous, some are ambiguous, and some even deviated from the original words so that it is hard to guess the meaning. Third category is regular and technical terms.
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)
